In the coming paper we shall
explore a few questions in depth based on the reading in, “Mosquito Empires: Ecology and War in the Greater Caribbean 1620-1914.”
by J.R. McNeill. The first of the questions to tackle in this paper is; how
Yellow Fever and Malaria made their way to the western hemisphere? The second
question would be; why did Yellow Fever and Malaria flourish after 1640? The
final two questions are more militarily based; what impact did these diseases
have on the military history of the Americas and what are the “herd immunities”
and what impact did they have on the wars and revolutions in the Americas
between 1740 and 1898? The intention is to answer based on writing from the
book, and some of an interview based on said book with Professor McNeill.
Throughout “The Argument”
and “Part I Setting the Scene”, there is an explanation of how the Malaria
parasitic protozoan and the Yellow Fever virus made their way to the “Americas”
between the northern Brazilian coasts in South America and South Carolina in
North America. To distill the general idea down to a few sentences, it can be
said that since Spain was the first out of the gate for the most part to try
and navigate and set up trade in various parts of the globe, they were the
first to meet and suffer from these illnesses on a large scale. However, those
who did survive these illnesses, especially if caught and survived in childhood
were more likely than not it seems to develop a resistance if not immunity to
these horrible diseases, thus setting themselves up to be able to venture into
and live with parasites and the vectors (mosquitoes) that killed those with
lesser experience in mass when they came into contact with the same diseases. The
Spanish were some of the first people to make contact with Yellow Fever through
the Slave Trade in West Africa and the Aedes Aegypti vector that delivered this
virus and also made contact with protozoan infected female Anopheles mosquito
which carried Malaria. The diseases made their way to the western hemisphere by
way of cargo, whether it was the “chattel” that were already infected, or the
on board vectors who had stowed away in fresh water barrels. Long tightly
packed voyages made it an easy spread for either disease. By the time some
ships made their way to the Americas, they had lost over half of the people on
board to disease. However, these early trips with infected people and getting
the infection early on in global travel set the Spanish up with the advantage
of resistance once so many people had suffered the illnesses and made it
through alive. If they could make it through the “Vomito” in the “Place
Spaniards are sent to die” then they probably would have a resistance to the
disease. The Spanish had many losses early in Africa and the Americas, but as
the numbers of people with resistance grew, it gave them a distinct advantage
over those who came from dryer, cooler and higher latitudinal areas of the
world. Once the ecology had been set up with storage wells for water, places
leveled and deforested for Rice and Sugar, and tributaries or pools set up for
keeping “fresh” water around for agriculture, the imported Mosquito vector had
only to find hosts amongst the many arrivals, and those newly arrived to
continue the diseases’ cycles for the long haul.
The next question of why
after 1640 did these diseases seem so virulent requires a little more in depth
analysis. From the book’s description the Spanish had set up shop in the Americas
and had time to become resistant to the diseases. The Spanish lost as many
people as anyone during the 1500’s, but Creoles, natural born Spaniards to the
Americas and mixtures with Africans developed hearty resistances from these
diseases over time, and gave the Spanish an almost unfair advantage when it
came to “waiting out the invaders” for the rains. Once the rains fell it was in
very short order that new vectors were produced, and many generations could be
hatched in quick succession and carry the diseases amongst all island
inhabitants. It seems after 1640 is when the raids, sieges and more than ever
“fresh” arrivals with no resistance at all came to the area looking for plunder
and or to take over Spanish lands. The Spanish knew with fortifications and
light armaments they could basically wait out the invaders whether English,
French, Scottish, Dutch or any other northern latitudinal peoples by simply
“holding on long enough for rain” (a point made ad-naseum in the first several
chapters). Or, if the invaders were unfortunate enough to come during a rain,
lock up the fort, and wait the required two or so weeks to see an attacking
force fall by half in ranks. Maybe even sink a few of your own boats to trap
the invaders in the bay with the “bad climate” and wait for them all to die
aboard ship. The first example would be the Scotts at Darien in 1698 and 1699.
Due to starvation and other ills during the 1690’s in their homelands, many
Scotts helped the crown try to create a colony at Darien (New Edinburgh) in the
southern end of Central America. They were forbidden to trade, but saw others
getting rich doing so. The nation who had only to obey eight of the Ten
Commandments because they had nothing to covet or steal had a champion by the
name of William Patterson. He had been to the West Indies as a youngster, and
thought he knew of the “key to the universe” for England if he would be allowed
to take a group with him and open a trade post in Darien for the crown. Using
Lionel Wafer’s manuscript speaking of gold and riches to be had, they tried to
make a deal to better the bonds of union to the British kingdom. Five ships set
sail in 1698 with 175 cannon and 1,200 men aboard. A few died during the trip, but Scotland was
in such a bad state that even the ship notes said more probably would have died
if they stayed home. They arrived in the perfect November time, or off season
for bugs. They saw much forest, many animals and plant life as well as getting
along with the native populations. They thought it was a great place to be. They
set up a fort of sorts, fresh water and a place to defend and had full
intentions of starting a trade with the natives and who ever would trade. They
were attacked by the Spanish and fended them off well only losing a few men in
battle. By late 1698 ten a day were dying of some disease or another. By June
of 1699, things looked badly as the king had said no more dealing with the
Scotts, and left them to their own. By the time another voyage had set sail to
help, it seemed abandoned and left. Then the new arrivals caught diseases and
died at the same pace and the Scotts gave it up. History repeated itself when
the rains came and people started dying.
The next example could be
the French at Kourou, a small town in Guyana where the Kourou River meets the
Atlantic. From 1763 to 1765 it was the scene of the most deadly attempt to
colonize the Americas up to that date. Many attempts were made to inhabit this
area by Dutch, English and French, but most fell ill to the varying diseases
that plagued the area. By 1700, some 30,000 people were there, but by 1800 it
was a paltry 2,000 living souls. Few people came, and the live birth rate was
far below the death rate, so without a new influx of people to live there, it
quickly lost most inhabitants. By 1749 it was considered a backwater hole and
an official report stated Guyana had made “little progress since its inception
and consisting of an inept group of derelict colonists, has generally been a
curse to the King”. Plenty to eat by way of natural game, fish and plants, but
with tide marshes and wet lands abounding due to natural and ecological changes,
it was the perfect place for vectors to set up and make hay of the people who
tried to settle the area.
Finally a look at herd
immunities and the impact on wars and revolutions in the Americas between 1740
and 1898 is in order. From 1739, as war approached in Cartagena, the Spanish
were sure their fortifications could hold against attack. They had used
limestone to shore up the walls, set up batteries in the harbor and approaches
to the harbor. Spanish defenses were built in steps to ensure they had retreat
ability but would show a slow get away or evacuation as a plan to keep their
adversaries on the low lands and in the Mosquito infested areas of the region
thus letting illness defend their land for them. The men who defended Cartagena
not known as the best fighting force had one major factor in their favor…
length of time in country and being a mixture of races that had developed
immunities to the various diseases that struck this area often. This is the
predicate to Herd Immunities. The more people in theater for the Mosquito to
choose from, the more likely it would bite an already immune host, therefore
passing up the newly arriving host who had no immunity built up. Put the fact
the British left port months later than expected for this journey and you could
easily see how they arrived just in time for the rains and the arrival of new
Mosquitos to spread diseases within the troops who had little by way of
immunity. Disease started within the first few days of the British landing and
over a short period of time cause strife within ranks, between commanders,
killed a few commanders and nearly leveled the entire British force by taking
around 8,000 men or “roughly ¾ of the men died” as Colonel Burnard wrote. By
1781, Cornwallis was sent to New York, and wrote back, “I submit to your
Excellency’s consideration whether it worthwhile to hold a sickly defensive
post in this bay” because he knew the shores of the Chesapeake were very heavy
with Malaria. By July 17th, just two months after arriving in the
area, he was losing men to sickness and asking Clinton for backup, and Clinton
was doing the same of him. Neither seemed able to keep a healthy force long
enough to sustain attacks in any southern region of the United States. Even Dr.
Jackson noted that the British forces couldn’t remain healthy long enough to
fight, and the Hessians were averse to the Cinchona Bark that helped so many,
and suffered greatly as a result.
In closing, it seems that
the beginning of Globalization gave the Americas a few diseases and vectors
which made conquering the area a nearly insurmountable task, especially when
one group gained such an early foothold in the area who also acquired
resistance to Malaria and Yellow Fever. However, as each new group came, and
more and more lived through fevers and diseases, natural herd immunities built
up in those who were able to stay long enough to establish themselves in the
new lands. These immunities helped the Spanish, and natural born “Colonists”
put up good fights in their time. The Colonists succeeded where the others
failed, but all were affected by the Mosquito Empire.
